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| − | {{Redirect|Alchemist|other uses|Alchemist (disambiguation)|and|Alchemy (disambiguation)}}
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| − | [[File:Alchemy of Happiness.png|thumb|250px|[[Kimiya-yi sa'ādat]] (''The Alchemy of Happiness'') – a text on Islamic philosophy and spiritual alchemy by [[Al-Ghazali|Al-Ghazālī]] (1058–1111).]]
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| − | '''Alchemy''' is a [[philosophical]] and [[protoscience|protoscientific]] tradition practiced throughout [[Europe]], [[Egypt]] and [[Asia]]. It aimed to purify, mature, and perfect certain objects.<ref>{{citation |last=Malouin |first=Paul-Jacques |contribution=Alchimie [Alchemy] |contribution-url=http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0000.057 |title=[[Encyclopédie]] ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers, ''Vol. I'' |location=Paris |date=1751 |editor-last=Diderot |editor-link=Diderot |editor2-last=d'Alembert |editor2-link=D'Alembert |display-editors=0 |publisher=translated by Lauren Yoder in 2003 for Michigan Publishing's ''The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project''}}.</ref><ref name=lindy>{{harvp|Linden|1996|pp=7 & 11}}.</ref>{{refn|group=n|For a detailed look into the problems of defining alchemy, see {{Harvnb|Linden|1996|pp=6–36}}}} Common aims were [[chrysopoeia]], the [[transmutation of elements|transmutation]] of "[[base metal]]s" (e.g., [[lead]]) into "[[noble metal|noble]]" ones (particularly [[gold]]); the creation of an [[elixir of immortality]]; the creation of [[panacea (medicine)|panaceas]] able to cure any disease; and the development of an [[alkahest]], a universal [[solvent]].<ref>{{citation |contribution=Alchemy |contribution-url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/alchemy |title=Dictionary.com }}.</ref> The perfection of the [[human]] [[human body|body]] and [[soul]] was thought to permit or result from the [[Magnum opus (alchemy)|alchemical magnum opus]] and, in the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] and western tradition, the achievement of [[gnosis]].<ref name=lindy /> In Europe, the creation of a [[philosopher's stone]] was variously connected with all of these projects.
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| − | In English, the term is often limited to descriptions of European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the [[Chinese alchemy|Far East]], the [[Rasayana|Indian subcontinent]], and the [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Muslim world]]. In Europe, following the [[12th-century Renaissance]] produced by the translation of [[Islamic science|Arabic works on science]] and the [[Recovery of Aristotle]], [[list of alchemists|alchemists]] played a significant role in [[early modern era|early modern]] [[science]]<ref>{{citation |editor-last=Eddy |editor-first=Matthew Daniel |editor2-last=Mauskopf |editor2-first=Seymour |editor3-last=Newman |editor3-first=William R. |display-editors=0 |ref={{harvid|''CKEMW''|2014}} |title=Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World |date=2014 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |url=https://www.academia.edu/6629576/_with_Seymour_H._Mauskopf_and_William_R._Newman_An_Introduction_to_Chemical_Knowledge_in_the_Early_Modern_World_Osiris_26_2014_1-15 }}.</ref> (particularly [[history of chemistry|chemistry]] and [[history of medicine|medicine]]). Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic [[laboratory techniques]], theory, terminology, and [[experimental method]], some of which are still in use today. However, they continued [[classical antiquity|antiquity]]'s belief in [[four elements]] and guarded their work in secrecy including [[history of cryptography|cyphers]] and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided by [[Hermeticism|Hermetic principles]] related to [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[mythology]], and [[religion]].<ref>Wouter J. Hanegraaff (Cambridge University Press: 2012), ''Alchemy between Science and Religion'', [https://books.google.ro/books?id=02bfnhO0H8sC&printsec=frontcover&hl=de&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture'']</ref>
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| − | Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its [[exoteric]] practical applications and its [[esoteric]] spiritual aspects, despite the arguments of scholars like [[Eric John Holmyard|Homyard]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|p=16}}</ref> and [[Marie-Louise von Franz|von Franz]]<ref name="FRAALC97">{{harvp|von Franz|1997}}.</ref> that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by [[history of the physical sciences|historians of the physical sciences]] who examine the subject in terms of [[history of chemistry|protochemistry]], [[history of medicine|medicine]], and [[charlatanism]]. The latter interests historians of [[esotericism]], [[history of psychology|psychologists]], and some philosophers and [[spirituality|spiritualists]]. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite this split, which von Franz believes has existed since the Western traditions' origin in a mix of [[Greek philosophy]] that was mixed with [[Ancient Egyptian technology|Egyptian]] and [[Mesopotamian science|Mesopotamian technology]],<ref name="FRAALC97" /> numerous sources have stressed an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy as far back as [[Bolus of Mendes]]'s 3rd-century {{sc|bc}} ''On Physical and Mystical Matters'' ({{lang-grc-gre|''Physika kai Mystika''}}).<ref name="Antoine Faivre 1995. p.96">Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. ''Western esotericism and the science of religion.'' 1995. p.96</ref>
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| − | {{anchor|Etymology}}
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| − | == Name ==
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| − | {{See also|Chemistry (etymology)}}
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| − | The word alchemy was borrowed from [[Old French]] ''alquemie'', ''alkimie'', taken from [[Medieval Latin]] ''alchymia'', and which is in turn borrowed from [[Arabic]] ''al-kīmiyā’'' ({{rtl-lang|ar|الكيمياء}}) ‘philosopher's stone’. The Arabic word is borrowed from [[Late Greek]] ''chēmeía'' (χημεία), ''chēmía'' (χημία)<ref>[http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0017630#DWS-M_EN_GB-037342 alchemy], Oxford Dictionaries</ref> ‘black magic’ with the [[agglutination]] of the Arabic [[definite article]] ''[[al-]]'' ({{rtl-lang|ar|الـ}}).<ref name=OED>{{OED|alchemy}} Or see {{OEtymD|alchemy|accessdate=April 7, 2010}}.</ref> This ancient Greek word was derived from<ref>See, for example, the etymology for χημεία in {{Cite book| edition = Eighth edition, revised throughout| publisher = Clarendon Press| last = Liddell| first = Henry George|author2=Robert Scott| title = A Greek-English Lexicon| location = Oxford| year = 1901| isbn = 0-19-910205-8}}</ref> the early Greek name for Egypt, ''Chēmia'' (Χημία), based on the [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] name for Egypt, ''kēme'' (hieroglyphic ''khmi'', lit. ‘black earth’, as opposed to red desert sand).<ref name=OED />
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| − | The Medieval Latin form was influenced by Greek ''chymeia'' (χυμεία) meaning ‘mixture’ and referring to [[pharmaceutical chemistry]].<ref>See, for example, both the etymology given in the Oxford English Dictionary and also that for χυμεία in {{Cite book| edition = A new edition, revised and augmented throughout| publisher = Clarendon Press| last = Liddell| first = Henry George|author2=Robert Scott|author3=Henry Stuart Jones| title = A Greek-English Lexicon| location = Oxford| year = 1940|url = http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=xumeia&la=greek#lexicon| isbn = 0-19-910205-8}}</ref>
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| − | == History ==
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| − | Alchemy covers several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: [[Chinese alchemy]], centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; [[Rasayana|Indian alchemy]], centered on the [[Indian subcontinent]]; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] and whose center has shifted over the millennia from [[Egypt (Roman province)|Greco-Roman Egypt]], to the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]], and finally [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]]. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoism]] and Indian alchemy with the [[Indian religions|Dharmic faiths]], whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system that was largely independent of, but influenced by, various [[Western religion]]s. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.
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| − | === Hellenistic Egypt ===
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| − | [[File:Zosimosapparat.jpg|thumb|left|300px| Ambix, cucurbit and retort of [[Zosimos of Panopolis|Zosimos]], from [[Marcelin Berthelot]], ''Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs'' (3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888).]]
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| − | The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and [[Hellenistic Egypt]], where the city of [[Alexandria]] was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.<ref>''New Scientist'', 24–31 December 1987</ref> Here, elements of technology, religion, mythology, and [[Hellenistic philosophy]], each with their own much longer histories, combined to form the earliest known records of alchemy in the West. [[Zosimos of Panopolis]] wrote the oldest known books on alchemy,{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} while [[Mary the Jewess]] is credited as being the first non-fictitious Western alchemist. They wrote in [[Greek language|Greek]] and lived in [[Egypt]] under [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule.
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| − | '''Mythology''' – Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to [[Ancient Egypt|Pharaonic Egypt]] where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion.<ref>{{cite book|last=Garfinkel|first=Harold|title=Ethnomethodological Studies of Work|publisher=Routledge &Kegan Paul|year=1986|pages=127|isbn=0-415-11965-0}}</ref> Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation.<ref>Yves Bonnefoy. 'Roman and European Mythologies'. University of Chicago Press, 1992. pp. 211–213</ref> These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, [[Isis]], [[Osiris]], [[Jason]], and many others.
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| − | The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is [[Hermes Trismegistus]] (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the [[deity|god]] [[Thoth]] and his Greek counterpart [[Hermes]]. Hermes and his [[caduceus]] or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to [[Clement of Alexandria]], he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge.<ref>[[s:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume II/CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA/The Stromata, or Miscellanies/Book VI/Chapter IV.|Clement, ''Stromata'', vi. 4.]]</ref> The ''[[Hermetica]]'' of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the [[hermeticism|hermetic philosophy]] by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era.
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| − | '''Technology''' – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of [[metallurgy]], extending back to 3500 {{sc|bc}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|1996|p=12}}</ref> Many writings were lost when the [[Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Diocletian]] ordered the burning of alchemical books<ref>{{cite book|last=Partington|first=James Riddick|title=A Short History of Chemistry|year=1989|pages=20|isbn=0-486-65977-1|publisher=Dover Publications|location=New York}}</ref> after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria ({{sc|ad}} 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the [[Stockholm papyrus]] and the [[Leyden papyrus X]]. Dating from {{sc|ad}} 300–500, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|2003|p=46}}</ref> These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of [[Bolus of Mendes]] (or [[Pseudo-Democritus]]), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the [[classical elements]].<ref name="Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent 1996, p13">''A History of Chemistry'', Bensaude-Vincent, Isabelle Stengers, ''Harvard University Press'', 1996, '''p13'''</ref> Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|1996|p=14}}</ref>
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| − | '''Philosophy''' – Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of [[Pythagoreanism]], [[Platonism]], [[Stoicism]] and [[Gnosticism]] which formed the origin of alchemy's character.<ref name="Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent 1996, p13" /> An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by [[Empedocles]] and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Water (classical element)|water]], and [[Fire (classical element)|fire]]. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed.<ref>{{cite book | author=Lindsay, Jack | title=The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt | location=London | publisher=Muller | year=1970 | isbn= 0-389-01006-5 | page=16 }}</ref> The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form."<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=66 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept.
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| − | Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging [[Christianity]]. [[Lactantius]] believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. [[Augustine of Hippo|St Augustine]] later affirmed this in the 4th & 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry.<ref>Fanning, Philip Ashley. ''Isaac Newton and the Transmutation of Alchemy: An Alternative View of the Scientific Revolution.'' 2009. p.6</ref> Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period.
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| − | Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as [[Moses of Alexandria|Moses]], Isis, [[Cleopatra the Alchemist|Cleopatra]], [[Pseudo-Democritus|Democritus]], and [[Ostanes]]. Others authors such as Komarios, and [[Chymes]], we only know through fragments of text. After {{sc|ad}} 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors.<ref>F. Sherwood Taylor. ''Alchemists, Founders of Modern Chemistry.'' p.26.</ref> By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline.<ref>Allen G. Debus. ''Alchemy and early modern chemistry: papers from Ambix.'' p. 36</ref> It was at that time that [[Khalid Ibn Yazid]] sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.<ref>Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar. ''Late antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world.'' p. 284–285</ref>
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| − | === India ===
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| − | {{Main article|Rasayana}}
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| − | {{See also|History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent}}
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| − | The [[Vedas]] describe a connection between eternal life and gold.<ref name=eb /> The use of [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] for alchemy is first documented in the 3rd– or 4th–century ''[[Arthashastra]]''. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. Greek alchemy may have been introduced to Ancient India through the invasions of [[Alexander the Great]] in 325 {{sc|bc}}, and kingdoms that were culturally influenced by the Greeks like [[Gandhāra]], although hard evidence for this is lacking.<ref name=eb>Multhauf, Robert P. & Gilbert, Robert Andrew (2008). ''Alchemy''. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008).</ref>
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| − | The 11th-century [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Persian chemist]] and [[Medicine in medieval Islam|physician]] [[Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī]], who visited Gujarat as part of the court of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], reported that they
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| − | {{bquote|have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which in [[Sanskrit]] is called [[Rasayāna]] and in Persian [[Rasavātam]]. It means the art of obtaining/manipulating ''Rasa'': nectar, mercury, and juice. This art was restricted to certain operations, metals, drugs, compounds, and medicines, many of which have mercury as their core element. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age.}}
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| − | The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body (Sanskrit ''divya-deham'') and immortality while still embodied (Sanskrit ''jīvan-mukti''). Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god Śiva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Devī.
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| − | Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the [[Kaula]] tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of [[Matsyendranath]]. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise ''Kalyāṇakārakam'' of Ugrāditya, written in South India in the early 9th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Meulenbeld|first1=G. Jan|title=History of Indian Medical Literature|date=1999–2002|publisher=Egbert Forsten|location=Groningen|pages=IIA, 151–155|ref=HIML}}</ref>
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| − | Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were [[Nagarjuna (metallurgist)|Nāgārjuna Siddha]] and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, ''Rasendramangalam'', is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanātha Siddha wrote ''Rasaratnākara'', also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, ''rasa'' translates to "mercury", and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold.<ref>See Dominik Wujastyk, "An Alchemical Ghost: The Rasaratnākara of Nāgarjuna" in ''Ambix'' 31.2 (1984): 70-83. Online at http://univie.academia.edu/DominikWujastyk/Papers/152766/</ref>
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| − | Reliable scholarship on Indian alchemy has been advanced in a major way by the publication of ''The Alchemical Body'' by David Gordon White.<ref>See bibliographical details and links at https://openlibrary.org/works/OL3266066W/The_Alchemical_Body</ref> Trustworthy scholarship on Indian alchemy must now take the findings of this work into account.
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| − | An important modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has also been provided by David Gordon White at [http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0046.xml?rskey=skoSqW&result=1&q=rasayana#firstMatch Oxford Bibliographies Online].<ref>DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780195399318-0046</ref>
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| − | The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's ''History of Indian Medical Literature''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Meulenbeld|first1=G. Jan|title=History of Indian Medical Literature|date=1999–2002|publisher=Egbert Forsten|location=Groningen|pages=IIA, 581–738}}</ref>{{refn|group=n|To wit, the ''Ānandakanda, Āyurvedaprakāśa, Gorakṣasaṃhitā, Kākacaṇḍeśvarīmatatantra, Kākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra, Kūpīpakvarasanirmāṇavijñāna, Pāradasaṃhitā, Rasabhaiṣajyakalpanāvijñāna, Rasādhyāya, Rasahṛdayatantra, Rasajalanidhi, Rasakāmadhenu, Rasakaumudī, Rasamañjarī, Rasamitra, Rasāmṛta, Rasapaddhati, Rasapradīpa, Rasaprakāśasudhākara, Rasarājalakṣmī, Rasaratnadīpikā, Rasaratnākara, Rasaratnasamuccaya, Rasārṇava, Rasārṇavakalpa, Rasasaṃketakalikā, Rasasāra, Rasataraṅgiṇī, Rasāyanasāra, Rasayogasāgara, Rasayogaśataka, Rasendracintāmaṇi, Rasendracūḍāmaṇi, Rasendramaṅgala, Rasendrapurāṇa, Rasendrasambhava, Rasendrasārasaṅgraha, Rasoddhāratantra'' or ''Rasasaṃhitā'', and '' Rasopaniṣad''. }} The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, ''Various works on rasaśāstra and ratnaśāstra'' (or ''Various works on alchemy and gems'') gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five) treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles.
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| − | A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy.
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| − | === Muslim world ===
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| − | {{Main article|Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam}}
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| − | [[File:Jabir ibn Hayyan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jābir ibn Hayyān|Jabir ibn Hayyan]] (Geber), considered the "father of [[chemistry]]", introduced a [[Scientific method|scientific]] and [[experiment]]al approach to alchemy.]]
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| − | After [[The fall of the roman empire|the fall of the Roman Empire]], the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about [[Islam]]ic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=46 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> The word ''alchemy'' itself was derived from the Arabic word ''al-kīmiyā’'' (الكيمياء). The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. [[Plato]]nic and [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through [[Syriac language|Syriac]] translations and scholarship.
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| − | In the late 8th century, [[Jābir ibn Hayyān]] (Latinized as "Geber" or "Geberus") introduced a new approach to alchemy, based on [[scientific method]]ology and controlled [[experiment]]ation in the [[laboratory]], in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were often allegorical and unintelligible, with very little concern for laboratory work.<ref name=Kraus /> Jabir is thus "considered by many to be the father of [[chemistry]]",<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Zygmunt S.|last=Derewenda|year=2007|title=On wine, chirality and crystallography|journal=Acta Crystallographica Section A|volume=64|pages=246–258 [247]|doi=10.1107/S0108767307054293|pmid=18156689|bibcode = 2008AcCrA..64..246D }}</ref> albeit others reserve that title for [[Robert Boyle]] or [[Antoine Lavoisier]]. The science historian, Paul Kraus, wrote:
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| − | {{quote|To form an idea of the historical place of Jabir's alchemy and to tackle the problem of its sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the [[Greek language]]. One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected by [[Byzantine science|Byzantine scientists]] from the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages.
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| − | The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz, von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugiere and others, could make clear only few points of detail ....
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| − | The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible nonsense which refuses any interpretation.
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| − | It is different with Jabir's alchemy. The relatively clear description of the processes and the alchemical apparati, the methodical classification of the substances, mark an experimental spirit which is extremely far away from the weird and odd esotericism of the Greek texts. The theory on which Jabir supports his operations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other Arab authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and practical teaching, between the ''[[Ilm (Arabic)|`ilm]]'' and the ''`amal''. In vain one would seek in the Greek texts a work as systematic as that which is presented, for example, in the ''Book of Seventy''.<ref name=Kraus>Kraus, Paul, Jâbir ibn Hayyân, ''Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque,''. Cairo (1942–1943). Repr. By Fuat Sezgin, (Natural Sciences in Islam. 67–68), Frankfurt. 2002:
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| − | (cf. {{cite web|author=[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]|title=A Critical Reassessment of the Geber Problem: Part Three|url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/geber/geber%2003.html|accessdate=16 September 2014}})</ref>}}
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| − | Jabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the importance of experimentation:
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| − | {{bquote|The first essential in chemistry is that thou shouldest perform practical work and conduct experiments,<br /> for he who performs not practical work nor makes experiments will never attain to the least degree of mastery.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1931|p=60}}</ref>}}
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| − | Early Islamic chemists such as [[Jābir ibn Hayyān|Jabir Ibn Hayyan]], [[Al-Kindi]] ("Alkindus") and [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] ("Rasis" or "Rhazes") contributed a number of key chemical discoveries, such as the muriatic ([[hydrochloric acid]]), [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] and [[nitric acid]]s, and more. The discovery that [[aqua regia]], a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, could dissolve the noblest metal, gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium.
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| − | Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was ''[[Takwin]]'', the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of ''hotness'', ''coldness'', ''dryness'', and ''moistness''.<ref name=burckhardt29 /> According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result.<ref name=burckhardt29>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=29 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> By this reasoning, the search for the [[philosopher's stone]] was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate [[numerology]] whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.
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| − | The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five [[classical element]]s ([[aether (classical element)|aether]], [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], [[Fire (classical element)|fire]], and [[Water (classical element)|water]]) in addition to two [[chemical element]]s representing the metals: [[Sulfur|sulphur]], "the stone which burns", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]], which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]] giving solidity.<ref name="r8">Strathern, Paul. (2000), ''Mendeleyev's Dream – the Quest for the Elements'', New York: Berkley Books</ref> The [[atomic theory]] of [[corpuscularianism]], where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Distilling knowledge: alchemy, chemistry, and the scientific revolution|first=Bruce T.|last=Moran|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=0-674-01495-2|page=146|quote=a corpuscularian tradition in alchemy stemming from the speculations of the medieval author Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan)}}</ref>
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| − | From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including [[Al-Kindi|Alkindus]],<ref>Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in [[Oliver Leaman]] & [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 174. London: [[Routledge]].</ref> [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Marmura | first1 = Michael E. |name-list-format=vanc| year = 1965 | title = ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines: Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] | url = | journal = Speculum | volume = 40 | issue = 4| pages = 744–6 | doi=10.2307/2851429}}</ref> [[Avicenna]]<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 196–197.</ref> and [[Ibn Khaldun]]. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the [[Philosopher's stone|transmutation of metals]].
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| − | === East Asia ===
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| − | {{Main article|Chinese alchemy}}
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| − | [[File:Esoteric Taijitu.svg|thumb| upright=0.5|Taoist Alchemists often use this alternate version of the [[Taijitu]].]]
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| − | Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The [[philosopher's stone]] of European alchemists can be compared to the [[Elixir of life|Grand Elixir of Immortality]] sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the [[universal panacea]]; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears.
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| − | [[Black powder]] may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, [[China|Chinese]] alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a [[potion]] for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} and used in [[fireworks]] in China by the 10th century{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}, it was used in [[cannon]]s by 1290{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}. From China, the use of [[gunpowder]] spread to Japan, the [[Mongol]]s, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century.
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| − | Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoist]] forms of [[traditional Chinese medicine]], such as [[Acupuncture]] and [[Moxibustion]], and to martial arts such as [[T'ai chi ch'uan|Tai Chi Chuan]]{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} and [[Kung Fu]] (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the philosophical or hygienic branches of Taoism, not Alchemical). In fact, in the early [[Song dynasty]], followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest [[cinnabar|mercuric sulfide]], which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}, mastering of the [[qi]]{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}, etc.).
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| − | === Medieval Europe ===
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| − | [[File:Joseph Wright of Derby The Alchemist.jpg|thumb|right||''[[The Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone]]'', by Joseph Wright, 1771]]
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| − | The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of [[Robert of Chester]]'s translation of the Arabic ''Book of the Composition of Alchemy''. Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century [[Toledo, Spain]], through contributors like [[Gerard of Cremona]] and [[Adelard of Bath]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=105–108}}</ref> Translations of the time included the [[Turba Philosophorum]], and the works of [[Avicenna]] and [[al-Razi]]. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|p=110}}</ref>
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| − | Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century [[Anselm of Canterbury|St Anselm]] put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, [[Peter Abelard]] followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, [[Robert Grosseteste]] used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.<ref name=hollister294f>{{cite book | author=Hollister, C. Warren | title=Medieval Europe: A Short History | location=Blacklick, Ohio | publisher=McGraw–Hill College | year=1990 | isbn=0-07-557141-2 | edition=6th |pages=294f}}</ref>
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| − | Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Roger Bacon]] were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms.<ref>John Read. ''From Alchemy to Chemistry.'' 1995 p.90</ref> Albertus Magnus, a [[Dominican Order|Dominican monk]], is known to have written works such as the ''Book of Minerals'' where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist.<ref>James A. Weisheipl. ''Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays.'' PIMS. 1980. p.187-202</ref> Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student [[Thomas Aquinas]].
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| − | Roger Bacon, a [[Franciscan Order|Franciscan monk]] who wrote on a wide variety of topics including [[optics]], [[comparative linguistics]], and medicine, composed his ''[[Opus Majus|Great Work]]'' ({{lang-la|Opus Majus}}) for {{nowrap|[[Pope Clement IV]]}} as part of a project towards rebuilding the [[medieval university]] curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to [[soteriology]] and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy.<ref>Edmund Brehm. "Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy." ''Ambix.'' Vol. 23, Part I, March 1976.</ref> Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical, however, confirmed the theoretical thought experiment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=120–121}}</ref> In later European legend, however, Bacon became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a [[brazen head]] capable of answering its owner's questions.
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| − | Soon after Bacon, the influential work of [[Pseudo-Geber]] (sometimes identified as [[Paul of Taranto]]) appeared. His ''Summa Perfectionis'' remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=134–141}}.</ref> By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the [[soul|human soul]]). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded [[jargon]] set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made [[observation]]s and [[theory|theories]] about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=149 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref>
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| − | In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' University of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 49</ref> [[Dante]], [[Piers Plowman]], and [[Chaucer]] all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. [[Pope John XXII]]'s 1317 edict, ''[[Spondent quas non exhibent]]'' forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists.<ref>John Hines, II, R. F. Yeager. ''John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition.'' Boydell & Brewer. 2010. p.170</ref> In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV<ref>D. Geoghegan, "A licence of Henry VI to practise Alchemy" Ambix, volume 6, 1957, pages 10-17</ref>). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of [[Petrus Bonus]], [[John of Rupescissa]], and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.<ref>[[Leah DeVun]]. ''From Prophecy, Alchemy, and the End of Time: John of Rupescissa in the late Middle Ages.'' Columbia University Press, 2009. p. 104</ref>
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| − | [[Nicolas Flamel]] is a well-known alchemist, but a good example of [[pseudepigraphy]], the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Though the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|2003|p=123}}</ref><ref>"Nicolas Flamel. Des Livres et de l'or" by Nigel Wilkins</ref> Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the [[philosopher's stone]]. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | pages=170–181 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> Through the [[late Middle Ages|14th and 15th centuries]], alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. [[Bernard Trevisan]] and [[George Ripley (alchemist)|George Ripley]] made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and [[symbol]]ism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.
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| − | === Renaissance and early modern Europe ===
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| − | {{Further|Renaissance magic|natural magic}}
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| − | [[File:Raimundus Lullus alchemic page.jpg|thumb|right|Page from alchemic treatise of [[Ramon Llull]], 16th century.]]
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| − | During the [[Renaissance]], Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed.
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| − | In the late 15th century, [[Marsilo Ficino]] translated the [[Corpus Hermeticum]] and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. [[Renaissance Humanism]] and [[Renaissance Neoplatonism]] guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel.
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| − | Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala.<ref>Peter J. Forshaw. '"Chemistry, That Starry Science" - Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy' (2013)</ref><ref>Peter J. Forshaw, 'Cabala Chymica or Chemia Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala' (2013)</ref> A key figure in this development was German [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa]] (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his ''De Occulta Philosophia'', he attempted to merge [[Kabbalah]], Hermetism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.<ref>Glenn Alexander Magee. ''Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition.'' Cornell University Press. 2008. p.30</ref><ref>Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. ''The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction.'' Oxford University Press. 2008 p.60</ref>
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| − | Philippus Aureolus [[Paracelsus]], (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from [[chrysopoeia]]. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."<ref>{{cite book | author=Edwardes, Michael | title=The Dark Side of History | location=New York | publisher=Stein and Day | year=1977 | page=47 | isbn=0-552-11463-4 }}</ref>
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| − | His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them.<ref>{{cite book | author=[[Debus, Allen G.]] |author2=Multhauf, Robert P. | title=Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century | location=Los Angeles | publisher=William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California. | year=1966 | pages=6–12 }}</ref> Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named [[spagyric]] (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning ''to separate'' and ''to join together'', based on the Latin alchemic maxim: ''solve et coagula'').<ref>Joseph Needham. ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 5, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Physiological Alchemy.'' Cambridge University Press. P.9</ref> [[Iatrochemistry]] also refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus.
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| − | [[John Dee]] (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Though better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as [[astrologer]], cryptographer, and consultant to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]], Dee's alchemical<ref>“''Monas hieroglyphica'' is not a traditional alchemical work, but has important theoretical insights about a cosmic vision, in which alchemy played an important part.”{{cite web | last = Szőnyi| first = György E.| year = 2015 | url = http://www.renesancni-texty.upol.cz/soubory/publikace/Latin_Alchemical_Literature_of_Czech_Provenance.pdf | title = ‘Layers of Meaning in Alchemy in John Dee’s Monas hieroglyphica and its Relevance in a Central European Context‘| publisher = Centre for Renaissance Texts, 2015, 118 }}</ref> ''Monas Hieroglyphica'', written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom ''As above so below''.<ref>William Royall Newman, Anthony Grafton. ''Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early Modern Europe''. MIT Press, 2001. P.173.</ref> During the 17th century, a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the [[Royal Society]]: [[Robert Boyle]] and [[Elias Ashmole]]. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the [[philosopher's stone]] might be used to summon and communicate with angels.<ref>* ''Journal of the History of Ideas, 41'', 1980, '''p. 293-318'''
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| − | *{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|pp=399}}
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| − | * ''The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and His Alchemical Quest'', by Lawrence M. Principe, 'Princeton University Press', 1998, '''pp. 188 90'''</ref>
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| − | [[File:Alchemik Sedziwoj Matejko.JPG|thumb|left|250px|"Alchemist [[Sendivogius]]" (1566–1636) by [[Jan Matejko]], 1867.]]
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| − | Entrepreneurial opportunities were not uncommon for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.4</ref> [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor]], in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate [[Edward Kelley]]. [[James IV of Scotland|King James IV of Scotland]],<ref>''Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland'', vol. iii, (1901), 99, 202, 206, 209, 330, 340, 341, 353, 355, 365, 379, 382, 389, 409.</ref> [[Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Augustus, Elector of Saxony]], [[Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn]], and [[Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel]] all contracted alchemists.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.85-98</ref> John's son [[Arthur Dee]] worked as a court physician to [[Michael I of Russia]] and [[Charles I of England]] but also compiled the alchemical book ''[[Fasciculus Chemicus]]''.
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| − | Though most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. ''Betrüger'' would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as [[Michael Maier]] and [[Heinrich Khunrath]] wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the [[con artist]]s.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.171</ref> False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud.
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| − | The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, [[Tycho Brahe]] (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his [[astronomical]] and [[astrological]] investigations, had a laboratory built at his [[Uraniborg]] observatory/research institute. [[Michał Sędziwój|Michael Sendivogius]] (''Michał Sędziwój'', 1566–1636), a [[Poland|Polish]] alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling [[oxygen]] in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to [[Cornelius Drebbel]] who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. [[Isaac Newton]] devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]]) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include [[Robert Boyle]], and [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]]. Their Hermetism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science.
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| − | === Late modern period ===
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| − | [[File:The Shannon Portrait of the Hon Robert Boyle.jpg|thumb|right|Robert Boyle]]
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| − | The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its [[apogee]] in the 18th century. As late as 1781 [[James Price (chemist)|James Price]] claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: "Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more—plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof."<ref name="Alchemy Restored">Principe, Lawrence M. "Alchemy Restored." Isis 102.2 (2011): 305-12. Web.</ref>
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| − | [[Robert Boyle]] (1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant.<ref>{{cite book | author=Pilkington, Roger | title=Robert Boyle: Father of Chemistry | location=London | publisher=John Murray | year=1959 | page=11 }}</ref> This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]] and [[John Dalton]].
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| − | Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction was drawn between "alchemy" and "chemistry" for the first time.<ref name="NewmanPrincipe2002p37">{{Harvnb|Newman|Principe|2002|p=37}}</ref><ref name="PrincipeNewmanp386">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=386}}</ref> By the 1740s, "alchemy" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.<ref name="Alchemy Restored" /><ref name="PrincipeNewmanp386" /> In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure of which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to separate and divorce the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, and even to the present day.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanpp386–7">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|pp=386–7}}</ref>
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| − | During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp387">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=387}}</ref><ref name="KripalShuck2005p27">{{Harvnb|Kripal|Shuck|2005|p=27}}</ref> The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience.<ref name="NewmanPrincipe2002p37" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Eliade|1994|p=49}}</ref><ref name="PrincipeNewmanp388">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=388}}</ref> This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp388" />
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| − | In the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were [[Mary Anne Atwood]] and [[Ethan A. Hitchcock (general)|Ethan Allen Hitchcock]], who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy."<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp391">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=391}}</ref><ref name="Rutkin2001p143">{{Harvnb|Rutkin|2001|p=143}}</ref> Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including [[Eliphas Levi]], [[Arthur Edward Waite]], and [[Rudolf Steiner]]. Hitchcock, in his ''Remarks Upon Alchymists'' (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]], published his studies on [[Odic force]], a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.<ref>Daniel Merkur. ''Gnosis: An Esoteric Tradition of Mystical Visions and Unions.'' SUNY Press. 1993 p.55</ref>
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| − | === Women in alchemy ===
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| − | Several women figure in the earliest history of alchemy. [[Michael Maier]] names [[Mary the Jewess]], [[Cleopatra the Alchemist]], [[Medera]], and [[Taphnutia]] as the four women who knew how to make the philosopher's stone.<ref>Raphael Patai. ''The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book.'' p. 78.</ref> Zosimos' sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and [[Isis the Prophetess]] also play a role in the early alchemical texts.
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| − | The first alchemist is recognized as being [[Mary the Jewess]] (c. 200 A.D.).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century|author1=Rayner-Canham, M |author2=Rayner-Canham, G|publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation|year=2005|isbn=9780941901277|location=|pages=2–4}}</ref> Mary is known for a number of improvements on alchemy equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry.<ref name=":0" /> Her most well-known advancements are heating and distillation processes. The water-bath, also known as Bain-Marie is said to have been invented by or at least improved by her.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book|last=Patai|first=R|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780691006420|location=|pages=60–80}}</ref> This double-boiler was often used in chemistry for processes that might require gentle heating. The tribikos (a basic still) and the kerotakis (a more intricate distilling apparatus) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The origins of alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt|last=Lindsay|first=J|publisher=Barnes & Noble|year=1970|isbn=9780389010067|location=New York|pages=240–250}}</ref> While these were great achievements, Mary the Jewess' most critical contribution is considered to be the identification of hydrochloric acid, a frequently used chemical today.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1094-alchemy#anchor2|title=Alchemy|last=Gaster|first=Moses|date=2011|website=Jewish Encyclopedia|publisher=Funk & Wagnalls Company|access-date=April 6, 2016}}</ref> Though we have no writing from Maria herself, she is known from the fourth century writings of [[Zosimos of Panopolis]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book|last=Patai|first=R|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=|isbn=9780691006420|location=|pages=81–93}}</ref>
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| − | Due to the proliferation of [[pseudepigrapha]] and anonymous works, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women. After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently the alchemical literature. Women vacate the history of alchemy during the medieval and renaissance periods, aside from the fictitious account of [[Perenelle Flamel]]. [[Mary Anne Atwood]]'s ''A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery'' (1850) marks their return during the nineteenth century occult revival.
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| − | === Modern historical research ===
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| − | The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study.<ref name="Antoine Faivre 1995. p.viii–xv">Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. ''Western esotericism and the science of religion.'' 1995. p.viii–xvi</ref> As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and [[philosophy]], the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, [[Kabbalah|kabbalism]], [[spiritualism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], and other mystic movements.<ref>[http://centres.exeter.ac.uk/exeseso/ See Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism website]</ref> Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at [[Indiana University]], the [[University of Exeter]] Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the [[European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism]] (ESSWE), and the [[University of Amsterdam]]'s Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the [[Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica]] in Amsterdam. A recipe found in a mid 19th century kabbalah based book features step by step instructions on turning copper into gold. The author attributed this recipe to an ancient manuscript he located.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jewishnews.com/2015/09/27/old-jewish-book-outlines-how-to-turn-copper-into-gold|title=Old Jewish Book Outlines how to Turn Copper into Gold|access-date=2016-04-21}}</ref>
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| − | Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include '[[Ambix]]', published by the Society for the History of alchemy and Chemistry, and '[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]', published by The History of Science Society.
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| − | == Core concepts ==
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| − | [[File:Fotothek df tg 0006104 Theosophie ^ Alchemie ^ Judentum ^ Kabbala.jpg|thumb|Mandala illustrating common alchemical concepts, symbols, and processes. From ''Spiegel der Kunst und Natur''.]]
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| − | Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from [[Neoplatonism]] and earlier Greek [[cosmology]]. As such, the [[Classical elements]] appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven [[Classical planets]] and the corresponding seven [[metals of antiquity]]. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of [[prima materia]] and [[anima mundi]] are central to the theory of the [[philosopher's stone]].
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| − | === Hermetism ===
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| − | In the eyes of a variety of esoteric and [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]] practitioners, alchemy is fundamentally spiritual. Transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.<ref name="Antoine Faivre 1995. p.96" /> The writings attributed to [[Hermes Trismegistus]] are a primary source of alchemical theory. He is named "alchemy's founder and chief patron, authority, inspiration and guide".<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|2003|pp=9}}</ref>
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| − | Early alchemists, such as [[Zosimos of Panopolis]] (c. AD 300), highlight the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul.<ref>Allen G. Debus. ''Alchemy and early modern chemistry.'' The Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry. p.34.</ref> This approach continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes were used as metaphors for [[spirit]]ual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding their true [[spiritual philosophy]]. Practitioners and patrons such as [[Melchior Cibinensis]] and [[Pope Innocent VIII]] existed within the ranks of the church, while [[Martin Luther]] applauded alchemy for its consistency with Christian teachings.<ref>Raphael Patai. ''The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book.'' Princeton University Press. p.4</ref> Both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic [[alchemical symbol]]s, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning.
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| − | In his 1766 ''Alchemical Catechism'', Théodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was a symbol:
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| − | {{quote|<poem>Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver?
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| − | A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life.<ref>Théodore Henri de Tschudi. Hermetic Catechism in his ''L'Etoile Flamboyant ou la Société des Franc-Maçons considerée sous tous les aspects.'' 1766. (A.E. Waite translation as found in ''The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus.'')</ref></poem>}}
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| − | === Magnum opus ===
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| − | {{Main article|Magnum opus (alchemy)}}
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| − | The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors.
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| − | *''[[nigredo]]'', a blackening or melanosis
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| − | *''[[Albedo (alchemy)|albedo]]'', a whitening or leucosis
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| − | *''[[citrinitas]]'', a yellowing or xanthosis
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| − | *''[[rubedo]]'', a reddening, purpling, or iosis<ref>Joseph Needham. ''Science & Civilisation in China: Chemistry and chemical technology. Spagyrical discovery and invention: magisteries of gold and immortality.'' Cambridge. 1974. p.23</ref>
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| − | == Modern alchemy ==
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| − | Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=385}}</ref> Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science [[Lawrence M. Principe]] and [[William R. Newman]], have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts.<ref>Richard Conniff. "Alchemy May Not Have Been the Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was." [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/alchemy-may-not-been-pseudoscience-we-thought-it-was-180949430/#ixzz2sYcrpZl7 Smithsonian Magazine.] February 2014.</ref> At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as George Calian<ref>
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| − | {{cite book|last= Calian |first= George |title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy |publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU |year= 2010 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up |accessdate= |ref= harv }}</ref> and Anna Marie Roos,<ref>Anna Marie Roos (2013), Review of ''The Secrets of Alchemy'', [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369848613001143 ''Studies in History and Philosophy of Science'' '''44''']</ref> who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts.
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| − | Today new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from [[New Age]] or radical environmentalism movements.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=396}}</ref> Groups like the rosicrucians and freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances.",<ref name="Alchemy Restored" /> which has contributed to a merger of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] and alchemy in popular thought.
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| − | === Traditional medicine ===
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| − | {{Main article|Ayurveda|Traditional Chinese medicine}}
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| − | Traditional medicine sometimes involves the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In [[Ayurveda]], the [[Samskara (Ayurvedic)|samskaras]] are claimed to transform [[heavy metals]] and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day.<ref>Junius, Manfred M; ''The Practical Handbook of Plant Alchemy: An Herbalist's Guide to Preparing Medicinal Essences, Tinctures, and Elixirs''; Healing Arts Press 1985</ref>
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| − |
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| − | Spagyrists of the 20th century, [[Frater Albertus|Albert Richard Riedel]] and Jean Dubuis, merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. The schools they founded, ''Les Philosophes de la Nature'' and ''The Paracelsus Research Society'', popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products.<ref>Joscelyn Godwin. ''The Golden Thread: The Ageless Wisdom of the Western Mystery Traditions.'' Quest Books, 2007. p.120</ref> The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a new age medicinal practice.
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| − | === Psychology ===
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| − | Alchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist [[Carl Jung|Carl Gustav Jung]]. Initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images, after being given a copy of the translation of ''The Secret of the Golden Flower'', a Chinese alchemical text, by his friend Richard Wilhelm, Jung discovered a direct correlation between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the internal or psychic processes of transformation occurring in his patients. He called the creation of the gold or lapis within the process of "[[individuation]]."<ref name="Jung, C. G. 1944">Jung, C. G. (1944). Psychology and Alchemy (2nd ed. 1968 Collected Works Vol. 12 ISBN 0-691-01831-6). London: Routledge.</ref><ref name="Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33" /> Together with his alchemical ''mystica soror,'' Jungian Swiss analyst, Marie-Louise von Franz, Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote brought new light into understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the ''[[hieros gamos]]'' or divine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for persons who have an interest in understanding of the importance of dreams, symbols and the unconscious archetypal forces ([[Jungian archetypes|archetypes]])<ref name="Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33">Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33</ref><ref>C.-G. Jung Preface to [[Richard Wilhelm (sinologist)|Richard Wilhelm]]'s translation of the [[I Ching]].</ref><ref>C.-G. Jung Preface to the translation of [[Secret of the Golden Flower|The Secret of The Golden Flower]].</ref> that influence all of life.
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| − |
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| − | Both von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Jung wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, ''Mysterium Conuinctionis.''
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| − |
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| − | === Literature ===
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| − | {{Main article|Alchemy in art and entertainment}}
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| − | Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. ''Literary alchemy'' appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of Terry Pratchett.
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| − |
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| − | Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games.
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| − |
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| − | == See also ==
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| − | {{Columns-list|3|
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| − | *[[Alchemy in art and entertainment]]
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| − | *[[Biological transmutation]]
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| − | *[[Chemistry]]
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| − | *[[Chinese alchemy]]
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| − | *[[Cupellation]]
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| − | *[[Hermes Trismegistus]]
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| − | *[[Historicism]]
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| − | *[[History of chemistry]]
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| − | *[[List of alchemists]]
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| − | *[[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience]]
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| − | *[[Magnum opus (alchemy)]]
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| − | *[[Mary the Jewess]]
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| − | *[[Nuclear transmutation]]
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| − | *[[Outline of alchemy]]
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| − | *[[Philosopher's Stone]]
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| − | *[[Physics]]
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| − | *[[Porta Alchemica]]
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| − | *[[Scientific method]]
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| − | *[[Superseded scientific theories]]
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| − | *[[Synthesis of precious metals]]
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| − | }}
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| − |
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| − | == Notes ==
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| − | {{reflist|group=n}}
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| − |
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| − | == References ==
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| − |
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| − | === Citations ===
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| − | {{Reflist|2}}
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| − |
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| − | === Bibliography ===
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| − | {{refbegin}}
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| − | *{{cite book|last= Calian |first= George |title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy |publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU |year= 2010 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up |accessdate= |ref= harv }}
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| − | *{{cite book|last= Eliade |first= Mircea |authorlink= Mircea Eliade |title=[[The Forge and the Crucible]]|publisher= [[State University of New York Press]] |year= 1994 |url= |ref= harv }}
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| − | *{{cite book|last= Forshaw |first= Peter J |chapter = Chemistry, That Starry Science – Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy |title= Sky and Symbol |url= https://www.academia.edu/5317837/Chemistry_That_Starry_Science_-_Early_Modern_Conjunctions_of_Astrology_and_Alchemy (2013)}}
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| − | *{{cite book|last= Forshaw |first= Peter J |article = Cabala Chymica or Chemica Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala |title= Ambix, Vol. 60:4 |url= https://www.academia.edu/5237828/Cabala_Chymica_or_Chemia_Cabalistica_-_Early_Modern_Alchemists_and_Cabala (2013)}}
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| − | *{{cite book|last1= Holmyard |first1= Eric John |authorlink1= Eric John Holmyard |title= Makers of Chemistry |publisher= [[Clarendon Press]] |location = Oxford |year= 1931 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://archive.org/details/makersofchemistr029725mbp |ref= harv }}
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| − | *{{cite book|last1= Holmyard |first1= Eric John |authorlink1= Eric John Holmyard |title= Alchemy |publisher= [[Courier Dover Publications]] |year= 1957 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7Bt-kwKRUzUC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref= harv }}
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| − | *{{cite book|last1= Linden |first1= Stanton J. |title= Darke Hierogliphicks: Alchemy in English literature from Chaucer to the Restoration |publisher= [[University Press of Kentucky]] |year= 1996 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3JUfBgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref= harv }}
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| − | *{{cite book|last1= Linden |first1= Stanton J. |title= The Alchemy Reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |year= 2003 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= |ref= harv }}
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| − | *{{cite book|last1= Newman |first1= William R. |last2= Principe |first2= Lawrence M. |authorlink2= Lawrence M. Principe |title= Alchemy Tried in the Fire |publisher= [[University of Chicago Press]] |year= 2002 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=eQERmMdykZEC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref= harv }}
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| − | *{{cite book|last1= von Franz |first1= Marie Louise |authorlink= Marie-Louise von Franz |title= Alchemical Active Imagination |publisher= [[Shambhala Publications]] |location= Boston |year= 1997 |isbn= 0-87773-589-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wOVUUMirSnEC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref= harv }}
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| − | *{{cite book|last1= Kripal |first1= Jeffrey John |authorlink1= Jeffrey John Kripal |last2= Shuck |first2= Glenn W. |authorlink2= Glenn Shuck |title= On the Edge of the Future |publisher= [[Indiana University Press]] |date=July 2005 |isbn= 978-0-253-34556-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mffc2m9D3REC |accessdate= 17 December 2011 |ref= harv }}
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| − | *{{cite book| last=Principe| first=Lawrence M.|title=The secrets of alchemy|location=Chicago &London|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-226-68295-2}}
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| − | *{{cite book|last1= Principe |first1= Lawrence M. |authorlink1= Lawrence M. Principe |last2= Newman |first2= William R. |authorlink2= |editor1-last= Newman |editor1-first= William R. |editor1-link= |editor2-last= Grafton |editor2-first= Anthony |editor2-link= Anthony Grafton |title= Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe |publisher= [[MIT Press]] |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-262-14075-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CMuJGpztRFMC |accessdate= 17 December 2011 |chapter= Some Problems with the Historiography of Alchemy |chapterurl= |pages= 385–432 |ref= harv }}
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| − | *{{cite book|last1= Rutkin |first1= H. Darrel |editor1-last= Newman |editor1-first= William R. |editor2-last= Grafton |editor2-first= Anthony |editor2-link= Anthony Grafton |title= Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe |publisher= [[MIT Press]] |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-262-14075-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CMuJGpztRFMC |accessdate= 17 December 2011 |chapter= Celestial Offerings: Astrological Motifs in the Dedicatory Letters of Kepler's ''Astronomia Nova'' and Galileo's ''Sidereus Nuncius'' |chapterurl= |pages= 133–172 |ref= harv }}
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| − |
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| − | == External links ==
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| − | {{Wiktionary}}
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| − | {{Wiktionary|alchemy}}
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| − | {{Wikiquote}}
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| − | {{Commons category|Alchemy}}
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| − | {{Wikisource|Portal:Alchemy|Alchemy}}
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| − | {{Wikibooks}}
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| − | * [http://www.ambix.org/ SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry]
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| − | * [http://www.esswe.org/ ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism]
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| − | * [http://www.aseweb.org/ Association for the Study of Esotericism]
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| − | * [http://www.alchemywebsite.com/ The Alchemy Website.] – [[Adam McLean]]'s online collections and academic discussion.
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| − | * [http://www.innergarden.org/ Inner Garden Alchemy Research Group: a non-profit foundation that aims to transmit the alchemical tradition.]
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| − | * {{In Our Time|Alchemy|p003k9bn|Alchemy (Peter Forshaw, Lauren Kassell and Stephen Pumfrey)}}
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| − | * [http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-04 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Alchemy
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| − | * [http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/digitallibrary/alchemy.html Book of Secrets: Alchemy and the European Imagination, 1500–2000] – A digital exhibition from the [http://www.library.yale.edu/beinecke/ Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University]
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| − | {{Alchemy}}
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| − | {{Metaphysics}}
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| − | {{Philosophy of science}}
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| − | {{Authority control}}
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| − | [[Category:Alchemy| ]]
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| − | [[Category:Hermeticism]]
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| − | [[Category:Esotericism]]
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| − | [[Category:Alchemists| ]]
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